Study guide
This guide covers eight major theorists in psychology and human development: Erik Erikson, Sigmund Freud, Jean Piaget, Carl Rogers, Carl Jung, Albert Bandura, Abraham Maslow, and Prochaska and DiClemente. For each one, it summarizes the key concepts and stages, explains how the theory applies in nursing and health care, and gives a memory tip. A comparison table and practice questions are included at the end.
Quick overview
| Theorist | Theory | School of thought | Core idea in one line |
|---|---|---|---|
| Erik Erikson | Psychosocial development | Psychodynamic (ego psychology) | Personality develops through 8 life-span crises between the self and society. |
| Sigmund Freud | Psychoanalytic / psychosexual theory | Psychodynamic | Unconscious drives and early childhood experiences shape personality. |
| Jean Piaget | Cognitive development | Cognitive / constructivist | Children actively build knowledge through 4 stages of thinking. |
| Carl Rogers | Person-centered (self) theory | Humanistic | People grow toward their potential when given acceptance, empathy and genuineness. |
| Carl Jung | Analytical psychology | Psychodynamic | A shared collective unconscious and archetypes shape the psyche; the goal is individuation. |
| Albert Bandura | Social learning / social cognitive theory | Social-cognitive | People learn by observing others; self-efficacy drives behavior. |
| Abraham Maslow | Hierarchy of needs | Humanistic | Basic needs must be met before higher needs and self-actualization. |
| Prochaska & DiClemente | Transtheoretical Model (Stages of Change) | Health behavior change | Behavior change happens in stages, and interventions should match the stage. |
1. Erik Erikson (1902–1994): Psychosocial Theory
Erikson, a German-American psychoanalyst, expanded Freud’s ideas but focused on social and cultural influences rather than sexual drives, and he described development across the whole life span. At each of eight stages, a person faces a psychosocial crisis between two opposing outcomes. Resolving the crisis successfully produces a basic virtue. An unresolved crisis can cause difficulties later, but it can still be worked through at later stages.
| Stage | Age | Crisis | Virtue | Key task |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Birth–18 months | Trust vs. Mistrust | Hope | Consistent, loving care builds trust |
| 2 | 18 months–3 years | Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt | Will | Toilet training, feeding self, making choices |
| 3 | 3–6 years | Initiative vs. Guilt | Purpose | Play, exploring, starting activities |
| 4 | 6–12 years | Industry vs. Inferiority | Competence | School achievement, mastering skills |
| 5 | 12–18 years | Identity vs. Role Confusion | Fidelity | Forming a sense of self and values |
| 6 | 18–40 years | Intimacy vs. Isolation | Love | Close, committed relationships |
| 7 | 40–65 years | Generativity vs. Stagnation | Care | Raising children, work, contributing to the next generation |
| 8 | 65+ years | Integrity vs. Despair | Wisdom | Life review; accepting one’s life |
Nursing application: Erikson guides age-appropriate care. Offer a toddler simple choices (“Do you want the red cup or the blue cup?”) to support autonomy. Let a school-age child help with their own care to build industry. Protect a teenager’s privacy and include them in decisions (identity). Encourage life review and reminiscence with older adults (integrity).
Memory tip: “Trust Always Inspires Industry, Identity, Intimacy, Generativity, Integrity” (T-A-I-I-I-I-G-I). Erikson = “Eight stages across the Entire life span.”
2. Sigmund Freud (1856–1939): Psychoanalytic Theory
Freud, an Austrian neurologist, founded psychoanalysis. He proposed that behavior is driven largely by the unconscious mind and by early childhood experiences.
Levels of consciousness
- Conscious: what we are aware of right now.
- Preconscious: memories that can be recalled easily.
- Unconscious: repressed thoughts, feelings and desires outside awareness that still influence behavior.
Structure of personality
- Id: present at birth; seeks immediate gratification (pleasure principle).
- Ego: mediates between the id and reality (reality principle).
- Superego: internalized moral values and conscience; develops around ages 3–6.
Psychosexual stages
| Stage | Age | Focus | Possible fixation |
|---|---|---|---|
| Oral | 0–1 year | Mouth: sucking, feeding | Smoking, overeating, nail biting, dependency |
| Anal | 1–3 years | Toilet training, control | Very orderly (“anal-retentive”) or messy |
| Phallic | 3–6 years | Genitals; Oedipus complex; identification with the same-sex parent | Problems with authority and relationships |
| Latency | 6–puberty | Sexual feelings dormant; focus on school, friends, skills | — |
| Genital | Puberty onward | Mature sexual relationships | — |
Defense mechanisms (frequently tested)
Defense mechanisms are unconscious strategies the ego uses to reduce anxiety. Many were developed further by his daughter, Anna Freud.
- Denial: refusing to accept reality (“I don’t have diabetes”).
- Repression: unconsciously blocking painful memories.
- Projection: attributing one’s own feelings to others.
- Displacement: redirecting emotions to a safer target, such as yelling at a nurse when angry about a diagnosis.
- Regression: returning to earlier behavior, such as a hospitalized 5-year-old wetting the bed.
- Rationalization: making excuses that sound logical.
- Sublimation: channeling unacceptable impulses into acceptable activities, such as aggression into sport.
- Reaction formation: acting the opposite of one’s true feelings.
Nursing application: Recognizing defense mechanisms helps nurses respond with empathy rather than taking patients’ reactions personally. Regression in hospitalized children is expected and temporary. Denial after a new diagnosis may need time before teaching will be effective.
Memory tip: Psychosexual stages: “Old Age Pensioners Love Gardening” (Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, Genital). Id = “I want,” ego = “Let’s be realistic,” superego = “You should.”
3. Jean Piaget (1896–1980): Cognitive Development Theory
Piaget, a Swiss psychologist, showed that children think differently from adults and actively build knowledge through interaction with their environment.
Key concepts
- Schema: a mental framework for understanding the world.
- Assimilation: fitting new information into an existing schema, such as calling a cow a “doggy.”
- Accommodation: changing a schema to fit new information (“That’s a cow, not a dog”).
- Equilibration: balancing assimilation and accommodation; this drives cognitive growth.
| Stage | Age | Key features |
|---|---|---|
| Sensorimotor | 0–2 years | Learning through senses and movement; object permanence develops (about 8–12 months) |
| Preoperational | 2–7 years | Symbolic thinking, language, pretend play; egocentrism, magical thinking, animism, centration; no conservation yet |
| Concrete operational | 7–11 years | Logical thinking about concrete objects; conservation, reversibility, classification, seriation |
| Formal operational | 11+ years | Abstract and hypothetical reasoning; thinking about the future and ideas |
Nursing application: Match teaching to cognitive level. Infants are soothed by sensory comfort and the presence of a parent. Preschoolers may believe an illness is punishment (magical thinking), so reassure them it is not their fault and use dolls or play. School-age children understand simple cause-and-effect explanations and hands-on demonstrations. Adolescents can discuss abstract ideas such as long-term health consequences.
Memory tip: “Some People Can’t Focus” (Sensorimotor, Preoperational, Concrete, Formal). Approximate ages: 0–2, 2–7, 7–11, 11+.
4. Carl Rogers (1902–1987): Person-Centered Theory
Rogers, an American psychologist and a founder of humanistic psychology, believed people are basically good and have an innate actualizing tendency, a drive to grow and reach their potential.
Key concepts
- Self-concept: how a person sees themselves.
- Real self vs. ideal self: who I am vs. who I think I should be.
- Congruence: when the real self and ideal self match, the person has healthy self-worth. Incongruence leads to anxiety and distress.
- Conditions of worth: feeling valued only when meeting others’ expectations.
- Fully functioning person: open to experience, living in the present, trusting oneself.
Three core conditions for growth (client-centered therapy)
- Unconditional positive regard: accepting the person without judgment.
- Empathy: understanding the person’s experience from their point of view.
- Genuineness (congruence): being authentic and honest.
Nursing application: Rogers’ ideas form the basis of therapeutic communication and patient-centered care: active listening, reflecting feelings, non-judgmental acceptance, and respecting the patient as the expert on their own life.
Memory tip: Rogers = “Respect, Empathy, Genuineness,” or “Rogers accepts you (unconditional positive regard).”
5. Carl Jung (1875–1961): Analytical Psychology
Jung, a Swiss psychiatrist and once Freud’s close colleague, broke with Freud over the importance of sexuality. He developed analytical psychology, which emphasizes meaning, spirituality and personal growth.
Structure of the psyche
- Ego: the conscious mind.
- Personal unconscious: forgotten or repressed experiences, organized into complexes.
- Collective unconscious: deep inherited patterns shared by all humans, expressed through myths, symbols and dreams.
Key archetypes
- Persona: the “mask” we show the public.
- Shadow: hidden, rejected or “dark” parts of the self.
- Anima / Animus: the feminine side in men and the masculine side in women.
- Self: the unified, whole personality, which is the goal of individuation.
Psychological types
Jung described two attitudes (introversion and extraversion) and four functions (thinking, feeling, sensation and intuition). These ideas later inspired the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI).
Nursing application: Jung’s ideas encourage nurses to consider a patient’s meaning-making, spirituality and personality preferences. For example, an introverted patient may need quiet time to process news, and dreams and symbols may matter in holistic and palliative care. For nurses, recognizing the “persona” they wear at work, and their own “shadow,” supports self-awareness and prevents burnout.
Memory tip: Jung = “Journey to wholeness” (individuation). Remember P-S-A-S: Persona, Shadow, Anima/Animus, Self.
6. Albert Bandura (1925–2021): Social Learning / Social Cognitive Theory
Bandura, a Canadian-American psychologist, showed that people learn not only through direct reward and punishment but also by observing and imitating others. In his famous Bobo doll experiments (1961), children who watched an adult hit an inflatable doll were more likely to act aggressively toward it themselves.
Four processes of observational learning
- Attention: noticing the model’s behavior.
- Retention: remembering it.
- Reproduction: being able to perform the behavior.
- Motivation: having a reason to perform it, through reinforcement, including vicarious reinforcement from seeing others rewarded.
Reciprocal determinism
Behavior, personal factors (thoughts and beliefs) and the environment all influence one another.
Self-efficacy
Self-efficacy is a person’s belief in their ability to succeed at a specific task (Bandura, 1977). It has four sources:
- Mastery experiences: past success, which is the strongest source.
- Vicarious experiences: seeing similar people succeed.
- Verbal persuasion: encouragement from others.
- Physiological and emotional states: interpreting anxiety or calm.
Nursing application: Use demonstration and return demonstration, such as insulin injection or inhaler technique. Build self-efficacy with small achievable goals, peer support groups and role models such as diabetes peer mentors. Self-efficacy is a key predictor of adherence and successful behavior change.
Memory tip: Bandura = “Bobo doll, Behavior is learned by watching.” The four processes: “A Really Rad Model” (Attention, Retention, Reproduction, Motivation).
7. Abraham Maslow (1908–1970): Hierarchy of Needs
Maslow, an American humanistic psychologist, proposed that human motivation follows a hierarchy of needs (Maslow, 1943). Lower, more basic needs generally must be met before a person is motivated by higher needs.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Self-actualizationReaching full potential, creativity, growthEsteemRespect, recognition, achievement, independenceLove & belongingFamily, friendship, intimacy, acceptanceSafety & securityProtection from harm, stability, health, shelterPhysiologicalAir, water, food, sleep, elimination, warmth
Growth ↑
Bottom four = deficiency needs · Top = growth need
Nursing priority: meet lower-level needs (airway, breathing, circulation, safety) first
- Deficiency needs (D-needs): physiological, safety, love and belonging, and esteem. These motivate us when they are missing.
- Growth needs (B-needs): self-actualization, meaning becoming everything one is capable of being. Maslow later added self-transcendence.
- Maslow acknowledged the order is not rigid. People can pursue several needs at once, and culture influences priorities.
Nursing application: Maslow is a core framework for prioritizing care and for NCLEX-style questions. Physiological needs come first, guided by the ABCs (airway, breathing, circulation), then safety (fall prevention, infection control), then psychosocial needs. For example, a patient in severe pain or struggling to breathe is not ready for discharge teaching.
Memory tip: From the bottom up: “Please Stop Laughing, Everyone’s Staring” (Physiological, Safety, Love, Esteem, Self-actualization).
8. Prochaska & DiClemente (1983): Transtheoretical Model (Stages of Change)
James Prochaska and Carlo DiClemente developed the Transtheoretical Model (TTM) from studying how people quit smoking (Prochaska & DiClemente, 1983). It holds that behavior change is a process that unfolds over time through stages, not a single event. Relapse is common and is seen as part of the cycle rather than failure.
| Stage | Description | Typical statement | Helpful nursing approach |
|---|---|---|---|
| Precontemplation | No intention to change in the next 6 months; may be unaware of or deny the problem | “I don’t have a problem.” | Raise awareness, provide information, build rapport, avoid lecturing |
| Contemplation | Thinking about change within 6 months; ambivalent | “I know I should, but…” | Explore pros and cons; motivational interviewing |
| Preparation | Planning to act within the next month; small steps taken | “I’ve bought nicotine patches.” | Help set goals and a concrete plan; offer resources |
| Action | Actively changing behavior (less than 6 months) | “I haven’t smoked for 3 weeks.” | Reinforce, support, problem-solve barriers |
| Maintenance | Sustained change for 6 months or more; preventing relapse | “It’s been a year.” | Relapse-prevention strategies; ongoing support |
| Termination | No temptation; complete confidence (not reached by everyone) | “I’ll never go back.” | Celebrate; little intervention needed |
The model also includes processes of change (such as consciousness raising, self-reevaluation, stimulus control and helping relationships), decisional balance (weighing pros and cons), and self-efficacy, which links to Bandura’s work (Prochaska & Velicer, 1997).
Nursing application: Assess a patient’s readiness to change before teaching. Giving a detailed quit plan to someone in precontemplation is usually ineffective. Matching the intervention to the stage is the key principle, and it applies to smoking, alcohol use, diet, exercise and medication adherence.
Memory tip: “People Can Probably Achieve More Today” (Precontemplation, Contemplation, Preparation, Action, Maintenance, Termination).
Comparing the theories
| Theorist | Focus | Stage-based? | View of human nature | Key nursing use |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Erikson | Social and emotional development | Yes (8 stages, life span) | Shaped by social relationships | Age-appropriate psychosocial care |
| Freud | Unconscious, sexual drives | Yes (5 stages, childhood) | Driven by unconscious conflict | Understanding defense mechanisms |
| Piaget | Thinking and reasoning | Yes (4 stages, to adolescence) | Active learners | Developmentally appropriate teaching |
| Rogers | Self-concept and growth | No | Basically good, growth-oriented | Therapeutic communication |
| Jung | Unconscious, archetypes, personality types | No (lifelong individuation) | Striving for wholeness and meaning | Holistic and spiritual care; self-awareness |
| Bandura | Observational learning, self-efficacy | No | Shaped by person, behavior and environment | Patient teaching; return demonstration |
| Maslow | Motivation and needs | Hierarchy (not age-based) | Growth-oriented once needs are met | Prioritizing care |
| Prochaska & DiClemente | Readiness for behavior change | Yes (6 stages of change) | Change is a process | Health promotion; motivational interviewing |
Practice questions
Click each question to reveal the answer.
1. A 4-year-old believes he got sick because he hit his sister. Which theory explains this?
Piaget’s preoperational stage: magical thinking and egocentrism. The nurse should reassure the child that the illness is not a punishment.
2. A 78-year-old reflects on her life and says she has no regrets. Which Erikson stage has she successfully resolved?
Integrity vs. Despair. Its virtue is wisdom.
3. A patient angry about his diagnosis shouts at the nurse. Which defense mechanism is this?
Displacement (Freud): redirecting emotion toward a safer target.
4. A patient says, “I know smoking is bad, and I’m thinking about quitting sometime this year.” What stage of change is this?
Contemplation. Use motivational interviewing to explore ambivalence.
5. Which patient should the nurse see first: one requesting education about a new diet, or one with an oxygen saturation of 86%?
The patient with an SpO₂ of 86%. Maslow’s physiological needs (breathing) come first.
6. A diabetes educator pairs a newly diagnosed patient with a peer who manages his insulin well. Which concept is she using?
Bandura’s vicarious experience, a source of self-efficacy, delivered through observational learning from a peer model.
7. A nurse listens without judgment, reflects the patient’s feelings and responds honestly. Whose theory underpins this approach?
Carl Rogers: unconditional positive regard, empathy and genuineness.
8. Which theorist described the “persona” and the “shadow”?
Carl Jung. These are archetypes in the collective unconscious.
Conclusion
These eight theories offer complementary views of human development, personality, motivation and behavior. Erikson, Freud and Piaget explain how people develop emotionally, psychologically and cognitively. Rogers, Maslow and Jung focus on growth, needs and the search for wholeness. Bandura and Prochaska and DiClemente explain how people learn and change behavior. For nurses, these theories are practical tools for communicating therapeutically, teaching at the right level, prioritizing care and supporting lasting health behavior change.
References
Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84(2), 191–215. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.84.2.191
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Prentice-Hall.
Bandura, A., Ross, D., & Ross, S. A. (1961). Transmission of aggression through imitation of aggressive models. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 63(3), 575–582.
Erikson, E. H. (1963). Childhood and society (2nd ed.). W. W. Norton.
Freud, S. (1961). The ego and the id. In J. Strachey (Ed. & Trans.), The standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud (Vol. 19, pp. 1–66). Hogarth Press. (Original work published 1923)
Jung, C. G. (1969). The archetypes and the collective unconscious (R. F. C. Hull, Trans.; 2nd ed., Collected Works Vol. 9, Part 1). Princeton University Press.
Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50(4), 370–396. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0054346
Piaget, J., & Inhelder, B. (1969). The psychology of the child. Basic Books.
Prochaska, J. O., & DiClemente, C. C. (1983). Stages and processes of self-change of smoking: Toward an integrative model of change. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 51(3), 390–395. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.51.3.390
Prochaska, J. O., & Velicer, W. F. (1997). The transtheoretical model of health behavior change. American Journal of Health Promotion, 12(1), 38–48.
Rogers, C. R. (1961). On becoming a person: A therapist’s view of psychotherapy. Houghton Mifflin.